Transfer of Training in an Advanced Driving Simulator: Comparison between Real World Environment and Simulation in a Manoeuvring Driving Task

Driving instructors and novice drivers often remain sceptical about the realistic learning potential driving simulators offer to real world driving tasks. The aim of this experiment was to compare the effectiveness of training in the real system with an advanced driving simulator. The participants were required to learn a specific driving manoeuvre: reverse park a truck with an attached trailer from one side of the street to the other. 50 experienced truck drivers were recruited to participate in the experiment. Initially all participants performed the manoeuvre 3 times in the real system (i.e. in the truck). If a participant completed the task successfully they were credited with a score of ‘1’, if a participant was unable to complete the task successfully he was credited with a score of ‘0’. The time taken to complete the task was also recorded. The participants were then divided into two groups. The two groups proceeded to train the task in one of the two training environments: Group A practised 5 times in the advanced driving simulator, whilst group B practised 5 times in the real system. Once training had been completed, all participants were asked to perform the manoeuvre an additional 3 times in the real system. Successful completion of the task was scored and the time taken to complete the task was once again recorded. The difference in scores between the initial 3 performances and the final 3 performances in the real system were measured allowing a direct comparison between the effectiveness of training in the two learning environments to be made. Whilst the t-test analysis of results indicated no significant difference in the success of completing the task between training groups, an insignificant difference in the time taken to perform the task between the training groups was found. It is suggested by the authors that the reason for this difference was due to the highly sensitive nature of the simulator that taught participants to be more cautious than necessary when performing the manoeuvre. Overall the results indicated a positive transfer of training from the driving simulator into the real system in this specific driving task. INTRODUCTION The benefits of using driving simulators as investigative tools in scientific research is widely acknowledged, which has resulted in extensive use of such systems within the scientific research community (e.g. Horne, 1991 (1); Hein, 1993 (2); Guyard, 1993 (3); Nilsson, 1993 (4); Allen, 1994 (5); Levine, 1996 (6); Triggs, 1999 (7); Godley, 2002 (8)). Driving simulators are also well known as interactive tools used to investigate different driving and manufacturing related items by car manufacturing companies (e.g. Käding, 1994 (9), Huesmann et. al., 2003 (10)). In general, driving simulators are used in three main fields of expertise (von Bressensdorf et al., 1995 (11)): • investigating human factors and behaviour • investigating and evaluating new appliances for vehicles • use as an educational instrument for learning and continuing education However, whilst driving simulators as research tools remain popular, driving simulators as interactive education instruments remain relatively underused despite possessing several advantages over training in the actual system, such as issues concerning safety, ecology and enhanced training: Safety: Simulators offer the opportunity to practice a task within a safe learning environment without the inherent risks and consequences that training in the real system places on trainees and equipment. This allows critical or dangerous driving scenarios to be simulated and therefore allows training to be performed in a safe and effective environment. Ecological: The environmental costs of most driving simulators are limited to the electricity required to power them. In contrast the amount of pollution (e.g. car exhaust fumes) generated by accumulated training in the real system is considerable. When learning to drive, the trainee is often required to perform tasks in very specific scenarios and locations. A trainee in the real system must spend time to travel to these specific locations whilst a simulator allows the location to be reached within a few clicks of a mouse button. Enhanced training: Simulators offer unlimited repeatability that allows a task to be trained as often and frequently as a user requires. They are also able to adapt the training curriculum to the learning pace and needs of the individual trainee. The instructor is able to pause a scenario to give the trainee immediate feedback. Dieterich and Tomaske (12) describe the following didactic advantages for driving simulators: • weight-belt effect: the task presented to the user is more difficult in the simulator than in the real system • aggregation effect: specific learning items occur much more often • multi-coding effect: revisiting the scene using replay possibilities • isolation effect: unhinge a specific training item out of a complex training task • emancipation effect: autonomous and independent learning by the trainee is possible The sum of these advantages suggests that driving simulators are powerful training environments. But despite these advantages, simulators remain underused as training devices. The question arises: why? The answer is two-fold; firstly, the quality of simulator based training is often regarded with scepticism; and secondly, the cost of building most modern driving simulators remains relatively high: Cost of driving simulators: One of the main reasons why driving simulators remain under used in the field of education is the high cost associated with well-equipped driving simulators. In comparison to the real system, high performance driving simulators (e.g. full motion, large visual display, precise computer models of the system, a large range of training possibilities) are expensive. A comparison of acquisition costs between a truck with an attached trailer and a high-end driving simulator reveals that the simulator costs ten times as much as the real system. Of course, there are low-cost driving simulators that have proven to be effective training devices. However, it seems a logical conclusion that a simulator that highly resembles the actual system, is more effective at transferring skill to the actual system than a device that less resembles the actual system. However, due to the extreme difficulty and expense incurred, complete duplication of the actual system is often undesirable. It is therefore important that simulator designers establish what deviations from the actual system can be made without compromising the effectiveness of training. If simulators are to be considered a viable alternative to training in the actual system, it is essential to determine what elements of the actual system are required without increasing simulator costs to an unsatisfactory degree. Acceptance by the users: Another important reason why driving simulators remain underused in the educational field is the lack of acceptance by users to train with such systems. These days, computers are integrated into the general lives of young people and therefore such users have no qualms with using driving simulators. For many young driving trainees the opportunity to train in an independent training environment at a self paced rhythm, without a trainer looking over his or her shoulder is a positive advantage. However, older trainees who do not possess much in the way of computer experience maybe hesitant and sceptical of driving simulators. The sentiment expressed is often: “Simulators are interesting and fun but they are not the same as the real system. I think that I would learn faster in a real car.”